The European Union Institute for Security Studies published in March 2023 a paper titled "Footprints in the Sand: China's and India's Low-key but Growing Presence in the Maghreb" by Dalia Ghanem.
The paper compares the impact of China, India and the European Union in the Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia). The footprint of both China and India in the Maghreb remains limited. The EU has a more multifaceted relationship with the region. Yet, both China and India recognize the significance of the Maghreb as the gateway to the Mediterranean and both are expanding their economic presence.
